|
|
|
|
|
Location & Geology |
| |
|
| |
- The research
area of LöKAT (Landscape Ecological
Complex Analysis in Turkey) is located in SE-Turkey
(Hatay Province)
 .
In altitude it extends from the colline to the subalpine belt at the
western slope of the Amanos Mtn. in the Dörtyol region
(237KB).
As the eastern border of the Gulf of Iskenderun, the Mountain is a
late alpidic folding and a southern extension of the Iranian mountain
chain of the eastern Toros range. It continues in the Cyprian mountains.
The eastern border of the Amanos is marked by a tectonic break line
(Jordan-Maras fault basin), which has its starting point at the northeastern
border of the Amanos upfolding. As a part of the mountain range at
the Levantinian Coast, the Amanos above Dörtyol rises to its
highest peaks up to > 2.200 m a.s.l.
- In the research area the
colline belt comprises sub-marine basic and ultrabasic greenstone
series incl. serpentinite of mesozoic origin (upper cretaceous), the
middle montane belt limestones of different types incl. dolomitic
limestones (mesozoic - tertiary) and the middle to upper montane belt
(incl. sub-alpine belt) sandstone series with quarzites and siltstones
(lower to upper palaeozoic).
|
|
|
|
|
Soils |
| |
|
| |
- Very well developed soils
- in the sense of soil genetically defined chronosequences - were
found all over the above mentioned rock series
(49KB).
Obviously they are far more seldom in areas of strong extensive management.
Due to divergent lithogenesis and related weathering conditions, the
depth of soil development differs greatly.
|
|
|
|
|
Climate |
| |
|
| |
- The coastal belt and
the colline landscapes underneath the resaerch area show bioclimatologically
humid to perhumid meso- to submediterranean conditions
(153KB)
. Real eumediterranean
climatic regimes are absent in the Dörtyol region. The entire
montane belt belongs, in a pluviothermic point of view, to the perhumid
‘non-mediterranean’ type of bioclimate. Short-term shortages of water
supply for plants on exposed sites with understocked forest and anthropogenic
soil erosion or very shallow soil cover can be expected during summer
time in spite of the favorable of humidity.
-
Heavy precipitation
occurs frequently in October, February and April. Mainly in October,
strong rainfall events were measured in the research area (e.g.
62 mm h-1 or 137 mm in 5 hours). The most frequent precipitation
rates are < 5 mm d-1 and have been registered by the
climatic stations S2 (950 m a.s.l.) and S3 (1.600 m a.s.l.). The
highest rain frequency was measured in the middle montane belt (50
% days with rain per year), and the lowest in the subalpine area
(29 % days with rain per year). The altitudinal gradient of precipitation
is not linear. The highest mean precipitation rates were found in
the middle montane belt with 2.300 mm y-1. The yearly
means are similar in the lower montane and upper colline belt and
the subalpine area (for comparison Dörtyol, 28 m a.s.l., 1.022
mm y-1).
|
|
|
|
|
Flora & Vegetation |
| |
|
| |
-
The southernmost distributed extrazonal vegetation of Euro-Siberian origin
on the investigated slopes of the Amanos represents, with regard to its extension and species diversity, the largest
area with the highest abundance of geoelements mainly of Euxinian provenance. In contradiction to hitherto existing
assumptions, the portion of endemics [cf. Draba
haradjianii and Carduus
amanus ]
is lower than the average of the country.
-
This remarkable vegetation owes its existence exclusively to the macroclimatic
conditions of the east mediterranean area during summertime.
During this season, etesian winds with monsoonal
character lead to cloudbank
formations at the western slopes. The supply of humidity,
in combination with reduced global radiation to nearly 40 %, and the influence of cloud cover on temperature, are responsible
for unique climatological conditions in the middle montane belt. On the contrary, precipitations of cyclonal origin
definitly favor the easterly and not the westerly exposed slopes.
-
The present climatic situation and the reconstructed history of the macroclimate
of the E-Mediterranean area leave no doubt that the extrazonal vegetation of the Amanos is of holocene origin.
Nearly 100 % of the determined Euro-Siberian species are identical with species of climatologically comparable landscapes
of the Black Sea Coastal Mountain (Pontus) region and areas of the NW-Balkan Peninsula. Out of 610
determined taxa
(238KB) the
portion of Euro-Siberians and biregionals are much higher than the portion of Mediterranean geoelements. Euro-Siberian
elements of Euxinian provenance dominate the vegetation in the montane belt
(61KB) .
In the extremly humid zonality, a hygro-thermal S/N-gradient is recognizable. The topographically and altitudinally
related vertical arrangement of vegetation belts shows surprising similarities to the climatological dependent S/N-zonation
of vegetation.
-
The middle to upper colline belt of the research area is covered by an anthropogenic
Pinus
brutia
mixed forest. Besides several macchie elements (evergreens are rare) in the
understory the portion of Euxinian deciduous elements is already very high (e.g. Quercus
cerris, Carpinus
orientalis
and Fraxinus
ornus ssp.), which leads to a character of undergrowth between ‘pseudomacchie’ and ‘shiblyak’. In valleys
of the lower montane area and mainly on the middle montane belt on limestones, Carpinus
orientalis dominates on northwesterly and Quercus
cerris on southwesterly exposed slopes, especially
those with shallow soils. Xero-Euxinian elements of this belt occupy mainly oligo- to mesohemerobic sites. Shady valleys
and humid ravines with atmospherically moist and edaphically wet conditions are dominated by a Laurus
- Tilia
mixed forest, which is rich with many different ferns. Mainly on limestones typical companions of this mesophylous forest
are Staphylea
pinnata (very
frequent), Buxus
sempervirens
(frequent), Taxus
baccata
(frequent) and Ilex
colchica (rare,
very similar to Ilex aquifolia). Growing in soils of the sandstone series, Fagus
orientalis
is
absolutely dominant on the entire inner montane belt up to the upper border of forest
and timberline. In a mosaic pattern Pinus
nigra ssp. pallasiana stands
are admixed. Abies
cilicica occurs
very sporadically on northwesterly exposed slopes > 1.300 m a.s.l. but covers large areas of southerly innermontane
slope positions > 1.700 m a.s.l. Cedrus
libani generally occurs very rarely.
|
|
|
| |
Flora
- Vegetation & Soils |
| |
|
| |
-
The distribution of vegetation in the research area is predominantly determined
by the possible water supply in soils during summer time. The importance of usable field capacity (uFC) of soils decreases
with decreasing evaporation loss as a result of shade effects in valleys and gor-ges or ravines. Sites preferred by
Euro-Siberian geoelements are generally soils with sufficient clay migration, high values of uFC mainly in the subsoil
(B-horizon) and in addition, high contents of sand and loam fractions in the topsoil (A-horizon). The highest values
of uFC (grand total of the profile) were found in soils of the middle montane limestone series. Mainly oligo- to mesohemerobic
soils of high slopes, ridges and crests with regressive soil development and often unproductive evaporation as a result
of high contents of humus and clay in the topsoils, are typical sites of (East-)Mediterranean and Xero-Euxinian geoelements.
-
Highly developed soils are generally restricted to sites hardly reachable
for human beings and their animals and rarely found in the middle montane area of extensive
cultivation (mainly grazing). Under the given climatic, and with respect to initial lithological conditions
for soil development, the most favourable soil water contents can be found more easily on the complex of sandstone series.
The affect of floristical differentiation of the pH-value between soils of the sandstone and limestone series, parallel
with the exposition of slopes, lead to a distinct separation of Carpinus
orientalis
/ Quercus
cerris- and Fagus
orientalis - units in the area of sand-stone
series.
-
In general Fagus
orientalis is indifferent to the various kinds of soils derived from different parent rocks of the Amanos
Mtn. In the research area, vegetation units dominated by the oriental beech are also well distributed on soils originating
from limestones, if these soils are deeply and well developed (e.g. Chromic Luvisols with a distinct Bt-horizon
as a result of illimerisation). A lithologically and pedologically based differentiation of vegetation units in areas
with limestone series or ultrabasic greenstones as parent rocks (e.g. serpentinite) were not detected. A lack in differing
species - an accepted phenomenon - for soils derived from serpentinite, as a result of high concentrations of heavy
metals in the soil solution available to plants, was not confirmed for the research area. On the contrary, in the heavily
overgrazed transition area of both limestone series and serpentinite the highest species diversity and population density
was found.
-
The short-term as well as the long-term nutrient supply is sufficient in
soils derived from sand-stones with moderate to very low pH-values, in soils derived from limestone with weak alkaline
soil solution and in soils derived from serpentinite with weak acid conditions. The best nutrient supply was found in
soils derived from limestones. Due to low pH-values in sandstone-soils, the effective Cation Exchange Capacity (CECeff)
has to be classified as ‘very low’ to ‘low’. Nutritional shortages are maybe only a problem for low rooting species.
Aluminium-toxicity in soils derived from sandstones was not found. In soils originating from ultrabasic greenstones,
the concentration of nickel and chrome does not reach toxic levels. The high concentration of interchangeable magnesium
in soils last mentioned were not found as limiting factors for plant distribution.
|
|
|
| |
Numerical
Ordination and Indicator-Parameter |
| |
|
| |
-
 With
numerical ordinations, the following environmental parameters for plant distribution were recognized as determining
variables: on the altitudinal gradient the continuously changing climatic conditions and the strong decrease of ‘global
radiation’ as a result of cloudbank formations in the
middle montane belt, the very low ‘pH-values’ of sandstone-soils, the relief positions ‘high slopes’, ‘ridges’, ‘crests’
and steep valley sides with valley bottoms. Although the variables ‘shallow soil cover’ and low ‘usable field capacity’
correlate with exposed ‘ridges’ and ‘crests’, these variables do not explain the variance in the data sets as well as
‘altitude’, variation of ‘global radiation’ and ‘pH-value’ (resp. ‘sandstone-formation’). Vegetation units dominated
by Carpinus orientalis show a clear correlation to mean soil layers with extremely high usable field capacities.
In contradiction Quercus cerris - units are more related to shallow soils on ‘high slopes’, ‘ridges’ and ‘crests’.
Fagus orientalis sites located in the range of limestone series correlate strongly with very well developed soils
(e.g. Bt-horizon) with extremely high ‘uFC’ and a very low content of ‘dead water’ - respectively ‘unavailable
water for plants’.
|
|
|
| |
Hemeroby
and Indicators |
| |
|
| |
-
Man-induced modifications of habitat factors in the research area in the
past lead to changes in abundance and dominance of highly frequent species on the altitudinal gradient. In general,
the change of plant populations probably would be the same under ahemerobic or oligohemerobic conditions. Nevertheless,
it must be supposed that with only very low human impact over a long period of time and under the same existing climatic
conditions e.g. Quercus cerris would already dominate northwesterly exposed colline foothills above Dörtyol.
Stands with Fagus orientalis on limestone would expand and Carpinus orientalis would replace Quercus
cerris on most of the middle montane sites.
-
Indicators for degradation of site conditions from the colline to middle
montane belt are very well distributed as a result of openings and understocked forests, trial structure of slopes,
soil deterioration and impoverishment (with the negative effect on soil moisture). Apart from Mediterranean species,
Pteridium
aquilinum and Ruscus
aculeatus var. angustifolius are very frequent. Pteridium
and Ruscus are rare on very shallow soils. The intensity of landscape cultivation can be evaluated not only by
the range of (often light demanding) indicator plant types, but also by the degree of coverage and structural diversity
of different vegetation layers. Mainly the layers < 10 cm and 10-50 cm show remarkable hints for understocked forests
resp. coppice wood or open woodland and eutrophication.
|
|
|
| |
Lifeforms
on the Altitudinal Gradient |
| |
|
| |
-
The spectrum of life forms is dominated by hemicryptophytes in all vegetation
units and altitudinal belts. With regard to the high portion of phanerophytes, similarities with the NW-Balkan Peninsula
are obvious. Thero- and hemicryptophytes are strongly represented in the middle montane area with high species diversity
as a result of very extensive cultivation. Phanerophytes and hemicryptophytes are the leading life forms in the mixed
beech forest of the high mountain belt. Just as the abundance of Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian geoelements changes
continuously with increasing altitude, the spectrum of life forms changes in the same manner. The portion of therophytes
decreases and thus of hemicrypthophytes increases. Discontinuities are related significantly to cultivation impacts.
|
|
|
| |
Cartography
& Mapping |
| |
|
| |
-
Thematical Ecological Maps (TEMaps) have been developed on the basis of topographical
maps, soil and vegetation investigations, field notices in enlarged sections of topographical maps, photos from the
landscape, aerial photographs and the digital classification of satellite images. Correlations of vegetation and soil
units are of special interest for comparison purposes. However, astonishingly few coincidences have been found. The
best correlations are recognizable between soil units of shady valleys, deeply weathered soils on limestones and - on
general - soils derived from sandstone series. The distributional pattern of vegetation depending on exposition is not
correlated with the distribution of soils. The lowest correlations have been found in the middle montane area and the
colline belt.
-
Due to the scale of digitalized satellite images, the interpretation of small
vegetation units is strongly restricted. Shade effects, different reflections, numerous reflectivities of parent rocks
and talus deposits on the altitudinal gradient in relation to exposition and altitude can be the cause for many classification
mistakes. Reliable results are available only with a series of multi-seasonal and multitemporal data sets. Presumption
for the evaluation of satellite-based field data is generally the traditionally claimed knowledge (geology, soils and
vegetation) of the landscape where vegetation mapping has to be performed.
|
|
|
| |
Society
& Economy |
| |
|
| |
-
The social and economic situation in the research area and its neighborhood
is characterized by the extraordinary density and increase of population. Besides growing industrialisation, not only
the entire coastal belt is therefore under cultivation, but in addition and with increasing tendencies, the hilly landscapes
and mountainous regions. Due to these circumstances, rapid changes of the coastal landscapes and namely the westerly
exposed slopes of the Amanus Mtn. are observed. The most important impacts are: expanding of grazing areas in montane
areas (increasing restrictions in intensive cultivated coastal landscapes for traditional animal farming are the reason),
uncontrolled and illegal wood consumption (stand inventories and descriptions of the forest management regarding structure
and composition of stands do not agree with the reality) and expanding of (summer-)settlements with infra-structural
openings (road construction, electricity and water supply).
-
Recognizable results of increasing anthropogenous impact on the research
area are: openings and understocked forests, open woodlands (mainly loss of trees and shrubs), desiccation of soils
and increasing surface run-off with concentrated seasonal run-off processes (with the result of negative effects on
water supply for coastal areas and the soil water balance of mountain slopes), erosion on high slopes, crests, ridges
and mainly on steep slopes with road constructions, increasing meso- to ß-hemerobic sites (which will be occupied by
Mediterranean species with a large amplitude of site requirements and at least deterioration of site conditions for
rare and endangered Euro-Siberian geoelements). Decrease of species diversity and loss of genetic resources of national
and international importance.
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Copyright
© Harald Kehl
TU-Berlin · Fak. VI · Inst. f. Ökologie,
Ackerstr. 71-76 · D-13355 Berlin
Updated on
9 August, 2010
|
|
|
|
 |
